DESERT CASTLES OF ANCIENT KHOREZM
Nestled in the vast expanse of the Kyzylkum Desert in Uzbekistan lies the ancient kingdom of Khorezm, home to some of the world’s most fascinating desert castles. The “Desert Castles of Ancient Khorezm” are a series of fortified structures, with around 20 of the most important still standing today, many of which are remarkably well preserved and open to visitors.
These archaeological sites now offer a glimpse into a civilization that once flourished at the crossroads of the Silk Road.
These isolated, weather-beaten ruins carry tales of ancient defense, trade and cultural exchange, inviting modern adventurers from around the world to explore their timeless beauty and historical significance in an almost forgotten setting. This complex of fortresses holds a unique architectural and historical legacy, testifying to the rich cultural heritage of Khorezm and the people who passed through it.
COORDINATES MULTIPLE
Origins and History
Once a significant region of Central Asia, Khorezm’s origins can be traced back over two millennia. Archaeological evidence suggests continuous human presence in the area since the 4th century BCE. Situated between the ancient Oxus River (now the Amu Darya) and the vast expanse of the Kyzylkum Desert, Khorezm developed into an important cultural and political center. Its strategic location along the Silk Road, one of the most vital trade routes connecting the East and the West, allowed Khorezm to become a thriving trading center. Various civilizations have passed through, each leaving their mark on Khorezm’s rich and multi-layered history.
photo by Giulio Aprin
The establishment of the Khorezmshah dynasty within the 11th century marked a great turning point in the history of the region. This powerful dynasty, originally of Turkish origin but heavily influenced by Persian culture, recognized the strategic importance of Khorezm as both a central authority and an economic powerhouse.
It became under their rule that the area skilled extensive architectural improvement, specifically in the construction of massive fortresses that served both army and administrative capabilities. These complexes, which includes Toprak-Kala and Akchakala, which were designed to face up to assaults from rival factions and outside invaders, are a testomony to the superior engineering techniques of the time. Strategically positioned, those fortresses dominated the in large part flat surrounding landscape, serving as strongholds against capacity threats and as a means of controlling the dynasty's role over the place.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Khorezm influence reached its peak in the 12th and 13th centuries, and for a time during the reign of the famous Khorezm Shah Ala ad-Din Muhammad II. The capital, Urgench (or Gurganj) flourished as a center of learning and innovation, and its libraries and educational centers attracted students, poets, and artists from across the Muslim world. However, this prosperity came to an abrupt end in 1220 when the Mongol Empire, with the help of Genghis Khan, launched a devastating invasion. In retaliation for the murder of his representatives by Ala Advertisement-Din Muhammad, the Mongols destroyed Khorezm, destroyed the cities, Urgench and others, and forced the people of Khorezmshah into exile
The aftermath of the Mongol invasion marked the decline of Khorezm as a political power. The once-thriving castles of the barren region fell into ruin as the population dwindled and trade routes changed. But despite this decay, the architectural heritage of the deserted forts remains intact, a testament to the ingenuity and resilience of the people who built them. Over the centuries, Khorezm saw the rise and fall of several empires, including the Timurids and Uzbeks, but the castles of the barren land remained imposing symbols of a flourishing past.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Architecture
Constructed primarily from adobe bricks and clay, the fortifications are characterized by their thick walls, towering towers, and intricate decorative elements. Notable features include massive gates that served as both entrances and defensive barriers, strategically placed watchtowers for surveillance, and spacious courtyards that facilitated daily activities and gatherings.
photo by Giulio Aprin
The layout of each fortress was meticulously designed to maximize defense while supporting the practical needs of daily life. Many of these castles featured living quarters for the ruling elite, administrative offices, storage spaces for food and water, and even places of worship. One particularly clever and innovative feature was the use of underground storage areas, which helped preserve supplies during long sieges. Toprak-Kala, once the capital of the Khorezmshahs, is a prime example of this ingenuity, with its extensive fortifications and complex design, which included multiple levels of defense and residential spaces. These elements reflect the strategic thinking of its builders, ensuring that the fortress could withstand attack and also function as a self-sufficient community.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Ayaz-Kala
Ayaz-Kala, one of the largest and best-preserved fortresses complex, was built between the 4th century BCE and the 7th century CE. It consists of multiple structures, with the most prominent being Ayaz Kala I, II, and III. These fortifications served as vital defense points against invaders and played significant roles in trade and local governance during their time.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Ayaz Kala I, the largest of the three, showcases impressive architectural features, including thick walls and an intricate layout designed to optimize defense. Archaeological excavations have revealed remnants of living quarters, storerooms, and religious spaces, indicating that the fort served as both a military outpost and a residential area. The site is also notable for its stunning desert surroundings, offering visitors breathtaking views and a tangible connection to the ancient Silk Road.
photo by Giulio Aprin
photo by Giulio Aprin
photo by Giulio Aprin
The fortresses are steeped in local legends, adding to their mystique and appeal. The name "Ayaz," which means "frost," is thought to reference the harsh climatic conditions of the desert, highlighting the resilience required to inhabit such a challenging environment.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Toprak-Kala
Toprak-Kala, the ancient capital of Khorezm, dates back to the 3rd century CE and covers 17 hectares. It served as a vital fortress and administrative center, strategically located 27.5 km north of Biruniy and 12 km northwest of Bostan, near the Sultan Uvays Dag escarpment.
photo by Giulio Aprin
The site has extensive ruins, revealing a complex urban structure of fortified walls, palatial buildings and ceremonial spaces, dating from the 3rd century BC. Items such as pottery and coins indicate extensive trade with neighboring communities, underlining its role as a cultural link along the Silk Road.
Significant structures include the Throne Hall and the Hall of Kings, emphasizing the importance of governance and spirituality. Sergey Tolstov, in his book Following the Tracks of Ancient Khorezmian Civilization, discusses the importance of Toprak-Kala as a political and cultural center, and reveals its architecture and social structures.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Though abandoned by the 6th century due to environmental changes, Toprak-Kala provides crucial insights into the Khorezmian civilization's political, religious, and social life. Excavations by Tolstov and later researchers have enriched our understanding of this significant historical site, making it a vital location for studying Khorezm's rich past.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Kyzyl Kala
Kyzyl Kala (or Qızıl qala), located about 25 kilometers north of Biruniy City in the Ellikala region of Karakalpakstan, stands as a remarkable example of Khorezm's defensive architecture. The fortress features thick, carefully built mudbrick walls, rising up to 16 meters high, indicative of its military purpose. Discovered by the Khorezm Archaeological and Ethnographic Expedition in 1938 and surveyed in 1940, Kyzyl Kala was built between the first and second centuries as an elaborate fortification system to protect the northeastern borders of Khorezm part of the
photo by Giulio Aprin
This almost square fortress measures approximately 65 by 63 meters, with corners oriented towards the cardinal points. The curtain walls consist of parallel external and internal walls separated by a two-meter-wide corridor, adorned with arrow-shaped loopholes. Additionally, it has two large rectangular towers on the northwest and southwest walls, which contain pairs of rectangular rooms. The single entrance, located in the southeast wall, is approached via a protruding rectangular barbican that provided strategic advantages for defending archers.
photo by Giulio Aprin
While some archaeologists have suggested that Kyzyl Kala served as a military barracks linked to the nearby summer palace of Toprak Kala, its size and lavish interior decorations imply it was more likely the fortified residence of a prominent Khorezmian aristocrat. Excavated in the 1980s by Dr. G'ayratdiyin Xojaniyazov and his team from the Karakalpak Branch of the Uzbek Academy of Sciences, the site revealed a wealth of artifacts, including ceramics, glass, and wall frescoes, indicating it was occupied by a high-status individual and their retinue until its abandonment in the 4th century.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Interestingly, the construction of Kyzyl Kala appears to have coincided with that of the earlier Toprak Kala fortress, possibly suggesting a shared defensive strategy. Local legends even hint at an underground passage connecting the two. Despite the damage it has endured over the centuries, Kyzyl Kala stands as a unique architectural monument from the Kushan-Afrigid period, highlighting the historical importance of the region.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Guldursun Kala
Big Gu'ldu'rsin Qala, also known as Bol'shoi Guldursun Kala or as the "Castle of Flowers,", is situated approximately 15 kilometers north of To'rtku'l in the Ellikqala district of Karakalpakstan, Uzbekistan. The citadel lies within a small rural community, surrounded by houses and cultivated fields, and is positioned west of the Tazabagyab irrigation canal.
This rectangular citadel measures approximately 350 by 230 meters, making it one of the larger fortified cities in the region. The outer walls, well-preserved in places, rise to heights of up to 15 meters. The structure primarily dates back to the 12th century, representing the remnants of a city that was overrun by the Mongols in 1221. Notably, the site has remained largely untouched since it became part of the ulus of Chaghatay, preserving its historical significance as an urban center during the Anushteginid dynasty of the Khorezmshahs.
An intriguing feature of Big Gu'ldu'rsin Qala is its northeast-facing wall, which is equipped with arrow slits arranged in a chessboard pattern. Interestingly, these arrow slits point inward rather than outward, suggesting a design influenced by an earlier medieval fort built on the site. The original fort, characterized by double walls and archers' galleries, was mostly demolished, but its external wall was integrated into the new citadel's structure, reinforcing its defenses.
Janbas Kala
Janbas Kala, or Jambas qala in Karakalpak, is an ancient fortress situated approximately 47 kilometers northeast of To'rtku'l in Karakalpakstan.
Nestled at the base of a low ridge, it overlooks a plain that, in antiquity, was fed by the eastern branch of the Akcha Darya delta. This strategic location provided access to water and agricultural resources, supporting the surrounding settlements. The fortress is thought to date back to the early 4th century BC, marking it as one of the earliest defensive structures in the Khorezm region following its independence from the Persian Achaemenid Empire. Its remote position on the eastern border of Khorezm suggests it played a crucial role in monitoring and protecting the frontier.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Janbas Kala is renowned for its archaic fortification system, characterized by a slightly irregular rectangular layout measuring about 200 meters long and 170 meters wide. The fortress is encased by well-preserved walls that reach heights of up to 20 meters. Unlike many of its contemporaries, Janbas Kala lacks flanking towers, which could have left it susceptible to attacks. To counter this vulnerability, military architects incorporated steeply inclined loopholes, enabling archers to defend the walls effectively. The entrance, located in the middle of the northwest-facing wall, is protected by a complex labyrinthine gateway, requiring would-be entrants to navigate through a heavily defended courtyard.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Within its walls, Janbas Kala featured residential buildings arranged along a wide central street, capable of housing between 500 and 1,000 individuals. Excavations conducted by Sergey Tolstov in the late 1930s uncovered numerous artifacts, including ceramics, terracotta figurines, and metalware, indicating a vibrant community. A significant finding was a monumental structure thought to be the city's main fire temple, suggesting the presence of religious practices. The citadel's occupation likely spanned from the 4th century BC to the 1st century AD, before it fell into decline. Evidence from the site, including numerous metal arrowheads, suggests it may have been overtaken by nomadic groups or suffered due to changes in the local water supply. Understanding Janbas Kala's history offers valuable insights into the ancient societies of Khorezm and their architectural innovations.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Big Qırq Qız Qala
Big Qırq Qız Qala, often referred to as the "Fortress of Forty Girls," is a significant site among the desert castles of Khorezm. It is part of the complex of ancient fortifications in the Kyzylkum Desert of Uzbekistan, dating from the 4th to 7th centuries. The name derives from a local legend about forty female warriors who are said to have defended the fortress against invaders.
The fortress itself stands out due to its massive size and unique architecture. Built atop a plateau, its towering walls were designed to protect against invasions from nomadic tribes. It features a rectangular layout with strong defensive structures, including watchtowers and thick, sloped walls that showcase the advanced military engineering of the time.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Despite its defensive purpose, the fortress also played a role in local governance and administration, functioning as a center of regional control during its peak.
This legend, combined with its historical role, makes Big Qırq Qız Qala not just a historical site but a symbol of folklore in the Khorezm region.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Kyrk Kyz Kala Malaya
Malaya Kyrk Kyz Kala, or the "Small Fortress of Forty Girls," is one of the lesser-known but architecturally fascinating fortresses in the Khorezm region. Built between the 4th and 7th centuries CE, it served as a fortified residence rather than a purely military structure, indicating that it might have housed local elites or been used for administrative purposes. The fortress is characterized by its square layout and thick mud-brick walls, with prominent watchtowers at each corner.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Unlike other fortresses in the area, Malaya Kyrk Kyz Kala was likely designed to protect against smaller-scale attacks, given its more modest size. The walls still bear traces of interior rooms and courtyards, which point to its residential and defensive functions.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Koi Krylgan Kala
Qoy Qırılg'an Qala lies approximately 24 km northeast of To'rtku'l and was first spotted by Sergey Tolstov and the Khorezm Archaeological Expedition in 1938.
The initial discovery of this unusual feudal fortress, with its deca-octagonal shape and eighteen corners, arose as a surprise during the expedition’s camp at nearby Teshik Qala. Reaching the site was no simple task—Tolstov and his team had to navigate massive sand dunes (barchans), finally uncovering a strikingly unique fort "sunk in a sea of sand." The fortress, now mostly eroded, once stood tall with 5 to 6-meter-high walls covered in closely spaced loopholes, and surrounded by a circular outer wall fortified with nine towers.
Archaeological evidence, including shards of rich crimson pottery, bronze Scythian arrowheads, and intricately decorated ceramics, testified to its cultural richness. The initial studies were interrupted by the onset of World War II, but excavation resumed in the 1950s, when a team was able to unearth more about this site’s enigmatic past.
The most significant discovery was the monumental two-story cylindrical building at the heart of Qoy Qırılg'an Qala. With a diameter of 42 meters, this structure featured an upper row of arrow slits and a lower row of windows. An outer double wall, 88 meters in diameter, fortified the structure, surrounded by bastions. Inside, a series of chambers displayed complex architectural elements, including arched ceilings and interconnected spaces, some with mysterious features like deep pits and sealed-off passages.
The architecture hints that the site may have once served as an astronomical observatory during Khorezm's Early Antique Period, monitoring celestial cycles that were vital for agriculture and Zoroastrian rituals. Some scholars have even suggested that the site might have been repurposed later as a royal mausoleum, due to the discovery of isolated and fortified chambers, but no direct evidence of burial remains was found.
photo by Giulio Aprin
The excavations also uncovered ossuaries—hollow ceramic burial urns molded in human shapes, suggesting a Zoroastrian influence in the region’s burial practices. This unusual tradition, likely introduced from the Middle East, involved exposing the dead to the elements before storing the bones in ossuaries to prevent pollution of sacred elements like earth and water. Some of these ossuaries, found at Qoy Qırılg'an Qala, were intricately designed to reflect both human features and deities, with one even depicting the Khorezmian god Vertragna as a camel. This practice reflected the cultural and religious sophistication of the Khorezmians, who, by the 2nd century BC, had established a rich wine-making culture, evidenced by numerous artifacts linked to viticulture and wine consumption.
Despite its cultural significance, the site faced challenges. By the time Soviet archaeologists completed their work in the mid-20th century, erosion, rising groundwater salinity, and looting had already taken a toll. Additionally, local inhabitants recycled mud bricks from the outer walls for their own use, further damaging the ruins. There were even plans in 2002 by the Ministry of Culture in No'kis to rebuild Qoy Qırılg'an Qala as a tourist attraction, but funding and support remain elusive, leaving the future of the site uncertain. Nevertheless, the fortress, standing as a testament to Khorezm’s architectural and cultural grandeur, continues to intrigue archaeologists and historians, offering a window into a lost world, where astronomy, warfare, and Zoroastrian rituals intersected on the edge of the ancient world.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Kurgashin Kala
Kurgashin Qala is located approximately 24 km due east of Ayaz Qala.
This site dates back to the end of the 4th or possibly early 3rd century BCE, serving as a crucial stronghold that defended the northern flank of Khorezm from nomadic attacks. The fortress was strategically situated on a slightly elevated plateau, providing an advantageous vantage point over the surrounding desert plain.
photo by Giulio Aprin
A preliminary investigation of Kurgashin Qala was conducted by Sergey Tolstov and his colleagues from the Khorezm Archaeological Expedition in 1939, followed by more detailed excavations by Kolyakov in 1986 and 1991. The fort features a rectangular citadel, measuring approximately 130 meters long and 90 meters wide, oriented so its corners face the cardinal directions. It boasts both an outer and an inner perimeter wall, with archers' galleries separating the two. The unfired mud-brick walls, built on a paqsa base, stand 14 to 16 meters high in places and feature a rather irregular design, with corners reinforced by variously arranged towers.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Surrounding the fortress on three sides is a low outer defensive barrier, known as a proteichisma, constructed of mud-brick, which extends about 10 meters from the curtain walls. This barrier, not present on the southwestern flank due to the natural escarpment, made it challenging for attackers to approach the fortress or maneuver siege engines close to its walls. Unlike Ayaz Qala 1, Kurgashin Qala was not merely an open refuge; instead, it was densely populated with residential buildings, sitting at the center of a large agricultural area fed by a canal system with multiple side channels. This oasis was dotted with small settlements, and today, fragments of pottery litter the site.
photo by Giulio Aprin
A significant modification occurred during the 1st to 3rd centuries CE, when the barbican was altered, and an entrance ramp was added. Kurgashin Qala remained occupied until the end of the 3rd to 4th centuries CE, after which it, along with the surrounding agricultural oasis, was abandoned, likely due to the natural drying-up of local water supplies. The fortress serves as a vital link to understanding the socio-political dynamics of early Khorezm and the region's interactions along ancient trade routes.
Economy
The economy of ancient Khorezm was primarily based on agriculture, trade, and craftsmanship. The fertile lands along the Amu Darya River supported the cultivation of various crops, including wheat, barley, and fruits, thriving thanks to advanced irrigation techniques. This agricultural abundance sustained local populations and contributed to the wealth of the ruling elite.
Trade was also vital to Khorezm's economy, with desert castles serving as key waystations along the Silk Road. Merchants and caravans traveling between the East and West would stop at these fortifications to rest, exchange goods, and share cultural knowledge. Luxury goods, such as silk, spices, and precious metals, flowed through the region, enriching the local economy and fostering artistic and cultural development.
Furthermore, the skilled craftsmanship of Khorezm's artisans enhanced its economic vitality. The region produced a diverse array of goods, from pottery and textiles to metalwork and jewelry, which were highly sought after in both local and international markets. The combination of agricultural resources, strategic trade routes, and exceptional craftsmanship positioned Khorezm as a vibrant economic center in Central Asia.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Culture and Religion
Khorezm was a melting pot of diverse cultures and religions, influenced by its position along the Silk Road. The region was home to various ethnic groups, including Persians, Turks, and Arabs, each contributing to the rich tapestry of Khorezm's cultural heritage. This diversity is reflected in the art, music, and traditions that flourished in the area, creating a vibrant cultural milieu that resonated through the ages.
Islam became the dominant religion in Khorezm after the Arab conquests in the 7th century, leading to the construction of numerous mosques, madrasas, and other religious structures. The fusion of local customs and Islamic practices shaped the cultural landscape, creating a unique identity for the region. Festivals, poetry, and craftsmanship thrived during this period, with Khorezm becoming a center for learning and artistic expression. Scholars and poets from Khorezm contributed to the literary and scientific advancements of the time, leaving behind a legacy that is still celebrated today.
The religious significance of the desert castles is evident in their architectural features, with many structures incorporating elements designed for worship and community gatherings. The presence of religious scholars and teachers within these castles further solidified their role as cultural and spiritual centers. This blend of culture and religion not only enriched the lives of Khorezm's inhabitants but also established the region as a beacon of knowledge and creativity in the Islamic world.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Today
The Desert Castles of Ancient Khorezm, though long abandoned, remain as enduring symbols of the region’s rich history. Despite the ravages of time, ongoing archaeological efforts are gradually revealing the lives of those who once inhabited these strongholds, offering deeper insights into Khorezm's role in ancient history.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Challanges and Conservation
The ongoing restoration and preservation efforts, combined with the growing interest in cultural tourism, ensure that the legacy of the Desert Castles of Ancient Khorezm endures for future generations.
As these majestic fortifications continue to capture the imagination of explorers and historians alike, they serve as a reminder of the rich history and resilience of the people who once thrived in this arid landscape.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Exploration and Tourism
Tourism in the area has also begun to flourish in the region, as curious travelers start discovering the breathtaking ruins and the natural beauty of the Kyzylkum Desert. As interest in Uzbekistan’s historical sites grows, the desert fortresses offer visitors a completely unique possibility to explore inside the remnants of a once-great civilization and travel off the beaten tracks, aways from the crowded sites.
photo by Giulio Aprin
Guided tours provide insights into the history and architecture of the castles, enhancing the experience for those eager to learn about Khorezm's past. Local communities have also begun to engage in tourism, offering traditional crafts and cuisine that allow visitors to immerse themselves in the vibrant culture of the region.
photo by Giulio Aprin